CAE · vocabulary list

C1 vocabulary list for CAE: words, collocations, phrasal verbs and idioms

Cambridge publishes official vocabulary lists for A2 Key and B1 Preliminary, but not for C1 Advanced. This C1 vocabulary list is our own selection for CAE candidates, organised by exam task: collocations and phrasal verbs for Reading and Use of English, word families for Part 3, and topic words, idioms and formal register for Writing and Speaking.

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Updated 15 November 2026 · Sources

Topic words: 216
Phrasal verbs: 78
Collocations: 80
Idioms: 40

How this list works

How this list maps to the CAE exam

Every section of this page matches something C1 Advanced tests. Parts 1–4 below are in the Reading and Use of English paper; the test focus is from the C1 Advanced Handbook for Teachers, in our words.

What each CAE task tests and which section of this page helps
Exam task	What it tests	Use this section
Part 1: multiple-choice cloze	Idioms, collocations, fixed phrases, phrasal verbs, the pattern that follows a word, and fine differences in meaning	Collocations Idioms Phrasal verbs
Part 2: open cloze	Mainly grammar, with some vocabulary such as linking words and fixed phrases	Fixed expressions
Part 3: word formation	Prefixes, suffixes, internal changes and compounds. The handbook notes that each task usually includes at least one word that needs a negative prefix	Word families
Part 4: key word transformations	Grammar, vocabulary and collocation, rewritten around a key word	Phrasal verbs marked ★ Collocations
Reading Parts 5–8 and Listening	Detail, opinion, attitude and implication in long texts and recordings	Topic vocabulary
Writing	The Language criterion marks range and accuracy; Communicative Achievement looks at whether your register fits the task and reader	Formal register Topic vocabulary
Speaking	Lexical Resource is marked separately from grammar	Topic vocabulary Idioms

Topic vocabulary

C1 vocabulary list by topic

12 everyday and general-interest topics of the kind C1 Advanced texts and tasks use, with 216 words and phrases. Each has its part of speech, a short meaning and an example sentence.

Work, careers and leadership Education, learning and research Science, technology and innovation The environment and conservation Arts, culture and heritage Cities, communities and society Health, mind and wellbeing Media, language and communication Travel, transport and place Personality, behaviour and relationships Money, the economy and consumption Design, crafts and making

Work, careers and leadership

Practise them with the CAE proposal guide and CAE Listening Part 3.

Work, careers and leadership: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
delegateverb	to give part of your work or responsibility to someone else	A good manager knows which tasks to delegate.
accountabilitynoun	the fact of being responsible for your decisions and expected to explain them	Shared leadership only works when there is clear accountability.
burnoutnoun	physical and mental exhaustion caused by working too hard for too long	Constant overtime led to burnout among junior staff.
lucrativeadjective	producing a lot of money	She left a lucrative career in law to become a carpenter.
headhuntverb	to approach someone who works for another company and offer them a job	He was headhunted by a rival firm within a year.
transferable skillsnoun, plural	skills that are useful in many different jobs	Teaching gave her transferable skills such as presenting and planning.
remitnoun	the area of responsibility given to a person or group	Customer complaints fall outside our team's remit.
handovernoun	the process of passing responsibility for something to someone else	A thorough handover saves the new team weeks of confusion.
generalistnoun	a person with knowledge of many areas rather than one (opposite: specialist)	Small companies often need generalists who can do a bit of everything.
expertisenoun, uncountable	a high level of knowledge or skill in a particular area	We hired a consultant with expertise in data protection.
moralenoun	the confidence and enthusiasm of a group of people (not moral)	Morale improved once staff were consulted about the changes.
workforcenoun	all the people who work for a company or in a country	Women now make up half of the company's workforce.
a steep learning curvephrase	a situation in which you have to learn a lot very quickly	My first month in the job was a steep learning curve.
entrepreneurnoun	a person who starts their own business, often taking financial risks	The entrepreneur turned a market stall into a national chain.
incentivenoun	something that encourages people to do something	Bonuses give staff an incentive to meet their targets.
public-facingadjective	dealing directly with members of the public	Public-facing roles demand patience and tact.
collaborateverb	to work together with others to produce something	Designers and engineers collaborate from the start of each project.
appraisalnoun	a meeting at which a manager judges an employee's work and discusses their progress	Annual appraisals give staff a chance to discuss their goals.

Education, learning and research

Practise them with the CAE essay guide and CAE Speaking Part 4.

Education, learning and research: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
rote learningnoun	learning by repeating something until you remember it, rather than by understanding it	Rote learning may get you through a test, but the facts are soon forgotten.
methodologynoun	the set of methods used in a piece of research or an area of study	The researchers explained their methodology in detail.
hypothesisnoun (plural hypotheses)	an idea or explanation that can be tested	The results did not support the original hypothesis.
findingsnoun, plural	the information discovered as a result of research	The findings were published in a leading journal.
peernoun	a person of the same age, status or ability as you	Students often learn as much from their peers as from their teachers.
constructiveadjective	helpful and intended to improve something	Good feedback is specific and constructive.
well-roundedadjective	having a wide range of skills, interests and experiences	Schools aim to produce well-rounded young people, not just good test-takers.
aptitudenoun	a natural ability to learn or do something	She showed an early aptitude for languages.
rigorousadjective	careful, thorough and strict	Every new course goes through a rigorous approval process.
inquisitiveadjective	eager to find out about things and to ask questions	Inquisitive children ask endless questions.
graspverb, noun	to understand something, especially something difficult; an understanding of something	It took me a while to grasp the basic principles.
acquireverb	to gain knowledge, a skill or a habit	Children acquire language through play and conversation.
attainmentnoun	achievement, especially in education	The study looked at the link between sleep and pupils' attainment.
literacynoun	the ability to read and write	Adult literacy classes are held at the library twice a week.
extracurricularadjective	done in addition to the normal school timetable	The school offers extracurricular activities such as chess and drama.
plagiarismnoun	copying someone else's work and presenting it as your own	Any essay that contains plagiarism receives a mark of zero.
thesisnoun (plural theses)	a long piece of writing done for a university degree	She is writing her thesis on historical cooking methods.
intellectuallyadverb	in a way that involves careful thinking	The course was intellectually demanding but rewarding.

Science, technology and innovation

Practise them with the CAE report guide and CAE Reading Part 5.

Science, technology and innovation: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
prototypenoun	an early model of something, used to test the design	The team tested three prototypes before choosing the final packaging.
breakthroughnoun	an important discovery or development, often after a lot of work	The new vaccine was hailed as a major breakthrough.
obsoleteadjective	no longer used because something newer has replaced it	Many of the archived instructions refer to obsolete machines.
intuitiveadjective	(of a product) easy to use without being taught	The app's intuitive design means users rarely need help.
glitchnoun	a small fault that stops something from working properly	A software glitch delayed hundreds of flights.
automationnoun	the use of machines to do work that people used to do	Automation has changed factory work beyond recognition.
ingeniousadjective	very clever, original and effective	It's an ingenious solution to an old problem.
feasibleadjective	possible and likely to work	Building the footbridge in a month just isn't feasible.
replicateverb	to repeat an experiment and get the same results	Other scientists have failed to replicate the results.
empiricaladjective	based on observation or experiment rather than theory	There is little empirical evidence for this claim.
trial and errornoun	trying different methods until you find one that works	The recipe was perfected through trial and error.
user interfacenoun	the parts of a program that a person sees and uses	The new user interface is cleaner but takes time to learn.
encryptionnoun	changing information into a code to protect it	End-to-end encryption keeps messages private.
pioneeringadjective	introducing new ideas or methods for the first time	Her pioneering work on insect illustration is still admired.
precisionnoun	the quality of being exact and accurate	The instruments measure temperature with great precision.
unintended consequencesnoun, plural	results that nobody planned or expected	The new rule had several unintended consequences.
infrastructurenoun	the basic systems a country or area needs, such as roads, water and power	The region's infrastructure needs urgent investment.
data-drivenadjective	based on the analysis of data	The council now takes a more data-driven approach to planning.

The environment and conservation

Practise them with the CAE proposal guide and CAE Listening Part 2.

The environment and conservation: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
biodiversitynoun	the variety of plants and animals in an area	Hedgerows support a remarkable level of biodiversity.
ecosystemnoun	all the living things in an area and the way they affect each other	Removing one species can upset the whole ecosystem.
depleteverb	to reduce the amount of something until little is left	Overfishing has depleted stocks of cod.
degradationnoun	the process of something, especially the environment, becoming worse	Soil degradation threatens farming in the region.
mitigateverb	to make something harmful less severe	Planting street trees can help mitigate the effects of urban heat.
carbon-neutraladjective	producing no more carbon dioxide than is removed or balanced out	The company aims to be carbon-neutral by the end of the decade.
migratoryadjective	(of birds or animals) travelling regularly from one region to another	Tiny trackers let scientists follow migratory birds across continents.
invasive speciesnoun	a plant or animal that spreads into a new area and harms the wildlife there	Volunteers spend weekends removing invasive species from the riverbank.
pristineadjective	in perfect condition; not spoilt by people	The island's beaches remain pristine.
contaminateverb	to make something dirty, harmful or poisonous	Chemicals from the old mine contaminated the water supply.
landfillnoun	a place where waste is buried, or the waste buried there	Most of this packaging ends up in landfill.
upcycleverb	to make something new and better from old or waste materials	The workshop upcycles old furniture.
scarcitynoun	a situation in which there is not enough of something	Water scarcity is a growing problem in the south.
irreversibleadjective	impossible to change back to how it was	Some of the damage to the coral reef may be irreversible.
ecologicaladjective	connected with the relationship between living things and their environment	The oil spill was an ecological disaster.
pesticidenoun	a chemical used to kill insects and other pests that damage crops	Bee numbers have fallen partly because of pesticides.
vulnerableadjective	easily harmed or damaged	Coastal towns are especially vulnerable to rising sea levels.
offsetverb	to balance the effect of something with something that has the opposite effect	Some airlines let passengers pay to offset the carbon from their flights.

Arts, culture and heritage

Practise them with the CAE review guide and CAE Reading Part 6.

Arts, culture and heritage: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
heritagenoun	buildings, traditions and objects from the past that are valued	The old station is part of the town's industrial heritage.
curatornoun	a person in charge of a museum collection or an exhibition	The curator chose objects that visitors are allowed to touch.
artefactnoun	an object made by people, especially one of historical interest	The museum displays artefacts from Roman Britain.
restorationnoun	the work of repairing an old building or object so that it looks as it did originally	The restoration of the tapestry took three years.
archivenoun	a collection of historical records, or the place where they are kept	The sound archive holds recordings of local dialects.
interpretationnoun	a particular way of explaining or performing something	Each actor brings a different interpretation to the role.
evocativeadjective	bringing strong images, memories or feelings to mind	The photographs are wonderfully evocative of seaside holidays.
acclaimedadjective	publicly praised by many people	The critically acclaimed novel has been translated into twenty languages.
craftsmanshipnoun	the skill of making things beautifully by hand	The craftsmanship of the binding is extraordinary.
aestheticadjective, noun	connected with beauty and how something looks	The design has both practical and aesthetic appeal.
mediumnoun (plural media or mediums)	a material or method used by an artist	Watercolour is a difficult medium to master.
genrenoun	a type of art, music or writing with its own style	Crime fiction is her favourite genre.
adaptationnoun	a film, play or programme based on a book	The stage adaptation stays close to the novel.
showcaseverb, noun	to show the best qualities of someone or something; an event that does this	The festival showcases young talent from across the region.
obscureadjective	not well known	The band plays songs by obscure folk artists.
immersiveadjective	making you feel completely surrounded by and involved in something	The exhibition is an immersive experience of sound and light.
patronnoun	a person who gives money to support artists or an organisation	Wealthy patrons paid for the building of the theatre.
installationnoun	a work of art made of several parts arranged in a space	The installation fills the entire hall with hanging paper.

Cities, communities and society

Practise them with the CAE proposal guide and CAE Speaking Part 3.

Cities, communities and society: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
gentrificationnoun	the change in an area when wealthier people move in, often pushing poorer residents out	Gentrification has pushed rents beyond the reach of local families.
amenitiesnoun, plural	useful or pleasant facilities, such as parks, shops and libraries	The new estate lacks basic amenities such as a pharmacy.
urban sprawlnoun	the uncontrolled spread of a city into the surrounding countryside	Urban sprawl has swallowed up farmland around the city.
regenerationnoun	improving an area that is in poor condition	The regeneration of the docks created thousands of jobs.
cohesionnoun	the state of a group being united	Shared spaces such as community kitchens strengthen social cohesion.
inclusiveadjective	deliberately including everyone, whatever their background or ability	The designers wanted the game to be inclusive for players with poor eyesight.
marginalisedadjective	treated as unimportant and kept out of decision-making	The project gives a voice to marginalised groups.
grassrootsadjective	involving ordinary people rather than leaders	It began as a grassroots campaign to save the library.
civicadjective	connected with a town or city, or with the duties of its citizens	Voting is seen as a civic duty.
densitynoun	the number of people or things in a given area	Population density is highest in the old town.
deprivedadjective	without enough money, good housing or services	The charity works in some of the most deprived areas of the city.
affordable housingnoun	homes that people on average or low incomes can pay for	There is a severe shortage of affordable housing.
demographicnoun, adjective	a particular group within a population; connected with population	The festival is trying to attract a younger demographic.
vibrantadjective	full of energy and life	The market has a vibrant atmosphere at weekends.
close-knitadjective	(of a group) with members who know and support each other	It's a close-knit community where everyone knows their neighbours.
footfallnoun	the number of people visiting a shop or an area	The weekly market has increased footfall in the high street.
anti-social behaviournoun	behaviour that disturbs or harms other people	Better street lighting has reduced anti-social behaviour.
stakeholdernoun	a person or group with an interest in a project or organisation	All stakeholders, including residents, were consulted.

Health, mind and wellbeing

Practise them with the CAE essay guide and CAE Listening Part 4.

Health, mind and wellbeing: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
resiliencenoun	the ability to recover quickly from difficulties	Facing small setbacks helps children build resilience.
apprehensiveadjective	worried that something bad might happen	She felt apprehensive about returning to work after a long break.
sedentaryadjective	involving a lot of sitting and little exercise	A sedentary lifestyle increases the risk of heart disease.
therapeuticadjective	helping you to relax and feel better	Many people find gardening deeply therapeutic.
cognitiveadjective	connected with thinking, learning and remembering	Puzzles may help to keep cognitive skills sharp in old age.
susceptibleadjective	easily affected or influenced by something	Older people are more susceptible to infections.
chronicadjective	(of an illness or problem) lasting for a long time	She suffers from chronic back pain.
alleviateverb	to make pain or a problem less severe	Gentle exercise can alleviate stress.
procrastinateverb	to keep delaying something that you should do	I tend to procrastinate when a task feels too big.
mindfulnessnoun	the practice of paying calm attention to the present moment	Mindfulness exercises are now taught in some schools.
insomnianoun	regular difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep	Years of night shifts left him with insomnia.
self-esteemnoun	confidence in your own value as a person	Praise for effort can boost children's self-esteem.
restlessadjective	unable to keep still or relax, often because you are bored or worried	Long waits make many people restless and irritable.
tranquiladjective	calm and peaceful	The garden is a tranquil spot away from the traffic.
detrimentaladjective	causing harm or damage	Too much screen time can be detrimental to sleep.
holisticadjective	dealing with the whole person or situation, not just one part	The clinic takes a holistic approach to pain.
preventiveadjective	intended to stop something bad, such as illness, from happening (also preventative)	Preventive medicine saves money in the long run.
overwhelmedadjective	feeling that you have too much to deal with	New parents often feel overwhelmed.

Media, language and communication

Practise them with the CAE report guide and CAE Reading Part 8.

Media, language and communication: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
misinformationnoun	false or misleading information, often spread without the intention to deceive	Misinformation spreads quickly during a crisis.
sensationalistadjective	presenting news in a way that is meant to shock or excite	The sensationalist headline had little to do with the story.
censorshipnoun	controlling what can be published, broadcast or performed	The film was banned under strict censorship laws.
eloquentadjective	expressing ideas clearly, well and persuasively	She gave an eloquent speech in defence of the library.
articulateadjective	able to express ideas and feelings clearly in words	He's very articulate about the challenges of translation.
jargonnoun	special words used by a particular group that others find hard to understand	The report was full of technical jargon.
conveyverb	to communicate an idea, feeling or impression	Translators must convey the author's voice, not just the meaning.
ambiguousadjective	having more than one possible meaning	The instructions on the label were ambiguous.
conciseadjective	giving information clearly in few words	Keep your summary concise.
coherentadjective	logical, clear and well organised	Her argument was clear and coherent.
paraphraseverb, noun	to express what someone has said or written in different words	Don't copy the notes word for word: paraphrase them.
readershipnoun	the people who read a particular newspaper or magazine	The magazine's readership is mostly over fifty.
echo chambernoun	a situation in which people only hear opinions that match their own	Social media can easily become an echo chamber.
discloseverb	to make information known, especially information that was secret	The company refused to disclose how much it had paid.
transcriptnoun	a written copy of words that were spoken	A transcript of the interview is available online.
accessibleadjective	easy to reach, use or understand	Audio description makes theatre accessible to blind audiences.
press releasenoun	an official statement given to journalists	The museum issued a press release announcing the new exhibition.
anecdotenoun	a short, interesting or amusing story about a real event	He opened his talk with an amusing anecdote.

Travel, transport and place

Practise them with the CAE review guide and CAE Listening Part 1.

Travel, transport and place: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
congestionnoun	a situation in which there is too much traffic	The new bypass has eased congestion in the town centre.
connectivitynoun	how well places or systems are linked to each other	Reopening the line has improved connectivity for rural villages.
secludedadjective	quiet, private and away from other people	We found a secluded beach at the end of a forest path.
picturesqueadjective	attractive to look at, especially in an old-fashioned way	The village is picturesque but crowded in summer.
unspoiltadjective	still beautiful because it has not been changed by building or tourism	The coastline is largely unspoilt.
disorientatedadjective	confused about where you are or which way to go (also disoriented)	Without a map, I felt completely disorientated.
mass tourismnoun	tourism involving very large numbers of people	Mass tourism has transformed the old fishing village.
detournoun	a longer route taken to avoid something or to visit somewhere	We made a detour to see the waterfall.
sleeper trainnoun	a train with beds, for overnight journeys	The sleeper train arrives in Edinburgh at seven.
cosmopolitanadjective	including people and influences from many different countries	It is one of the most cosmopolitan cities in Europe.
sense of placenoun	the special character of a place that makes people feel attached to it	The new buildings lack any sense of place.
navigateverb	to find your way from one place to another	Few young drivers can navigate without a satnav.
in transitphrase	while travelling or being transported	Our luggage was lost in transit.
off-peakadjective	at a time when fewer people travel and prices are lower	Off-peak tickets are much cheaper.
hubnoun	a central place where many routes or activities meet	The station is the main transport hub for the region.
unchartedadjective	not mapped or explored; (figuratively) not experienced before	Leaving the marked path felt like entering uncharted territory.
meanderverb	to follow a slow, winding route	The river meanders through the valley.
exodusnoun	a situation in which a lot of people leave a place at the same time	There is an exodus from the city every August.

Personality, behaviour and relationships

Practise them with the CAE Speaking Part 2 and CAE email and letter guide.

Personality, behaviour and relationships: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
conscientiousadjective	careful to do your work well and thoroughly	She is conscientious and always double-checks her figures.
assertiveadjective	confident and direct in saying what you want or think	You can be assertive without being rude.
introvertnoun	a quiet person who prefers to spend time alone or with a few people (opposite: extrovert)	As an introvert, I need quiet time after a busy day.
gregariousadjective	enjoying the company of other people	Our gregarious neighbour seems to know everyone on the street.
complacentadjective	too satisfied with yourself to see the need to improve	After two easy wins, the team became complacent.
diplomaticadjective	careful not to upset people	She gave a diplomatic answer to an awkward question.
empathynoun	the ability to understand and share another person's feelings	Good doctors show empathy towards their patients.
condescendingadjective	behaving as if you are more important or intelligent than other people	His condescending tone annoyed the whole team.
meticulousadjective	very careful about every small detail	Restoring old books requires meticulous attention.
impulsiveadjective	acting suddenly, without thinking carefully first	Buying the van was an impulsive decision.
rapportnoun	a friendly relationship in which people understand each other well	The best teachers build rapport with their students.
resourcefuladjective	good at finding ways to solve problems	Working with limited materials made the designers resourceful.
temperamentaladjective	having moods that change suddenly; (of a machine) not working reliably	The old printer is as temperamental as its owner.
estrangedadjective	no longer in contact with a family member	He's been estranged from his brother for years.
integritynoun	the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles	Nobody questions her integrity.
humilitynoun	the quality of not thinking that you are better than other people	It takes humility to admit that you need help.
down-to-earthadjective	practical, sensible and friendly	Despite her fame, she's very down-to-earth.
compatibleadjective	able to live or work together without problems	We're good friends, but we'd never be compatible as flatmates.

Money, the economy and consumption

Practise them with the CAE essay guide and CAE report guide.

Money, the economy and consumption: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
affluentadjective	having a lot of money and a high standard of living	It is one of the most affluent areas in the country.
frugaladjective	careful to spend as little money as possible	My grandparents lived a frugal life.
consumerismnoun	a way of life focused on buying more and more goods	The documentary is a critique of modern consumerism.
inflationnoun	a general rise in prices over time	Inflation has made food noticeably more expensive.
recessionnoun	a period when a country's economy shrinks	Many small firms closed during the recession.
austeritynoun	a government policy of strict cuts in public spending	Years of austerity led to library closures.
subsidiseverb	to pay part of the cost of something	The council subsidises bus travel for pensioners.
revenuenoun	the money that an organisation receives	Ticket sales are the festival's main source of revenue.
thrivingadjective	growing, active and successful	The town has a thriving market.
viableadjective	able to work or succeed, especially financially	The bookshop is no longer commercially viable.
overheadsnoun, plural	the regular costs of running a business, such as rent and electricity	Working from home keeps our overheads low.
crowdfundingnoun	raising money for a project by asking many people online for small amounts	The film was made through crowdfunding.
squanderverb	to waste money, time or opportunities	He squandered his savings on a failed business.
materialisticadjective	caring too much about money and possessions	Critics claim that young people are becoming more materialistic.
ethicaladjective	morally right; produced in a way that does not harm people or the environment	Ethical fashion brands pay fair wages.
hard upadjective, informal	having very little money	We were very hard up when we were students.
the cost of livingnoun	the amount of money needed to pay for basic things such as food and housing	The cost of living has risen faster than wages.
a false economyphrase	something that seems to save money but costs more in the end	Buying cheap tools is a false economy.

Design, crafts and making

Practise them with the CAE review guide and CAE Reading Part 7.

Design, crafts and making: C1 words with meanings and examples
Word or phrase	Meaning	Example
bespokeadjective	made specially for one customer	The workshop makes bespoke furniture.
durableadjective	able to last a long time without breaking	Leather is far more durable than plastic.
intricateadjective	having many small parts or details	The cover has an intricate pattern of gold leaf.
tinkerverb	to make small changes to something in order to repair or improve it	He loves tinkering with old radios.
functionaladjective	designed to be practical rather than attractive	The benches are functional rather than beautiful.
ergonomicadjective	designed to be comfortable and efficient to use	An ergonomic chair can prevent back pain.
dilapidatedadjective	(of a building) old and in very bad condition	They bought a dilapidated barn and turned it into a studio.
salvageverb	to save things from damage, destruction or waste	Most of the timber was salvaged from a demolished school.
artisannoun	a skilled person who makes things by hand	Local artisans sell their work at the Saturday market.
mass-producedadjective	made in large numbers by machine	Mass-produced furniture rarely lasts as long as handmade pieces.
refurbishverb	to repair and redecorate a building or room	The library was refurbished last year.
blueprintnoun	a detailed plan for how to do or build something	The report offers a blueprint for redesigning shared rooms.
versatileadjective	able to be used in many different ways	Wool is a remarkably versatile material.
flimsyadjective	thin and easily broken	The flimsy packaging fell apart in the post.
intactadjective	complete and not damaged	Remarkably, the old instructions survived intact.
streamlineverb	to make a system or process simpler and more efficient	The new layout streamlines the checkout process.
hallmarknoun	a typical feature of something or someone	Attention to detail is the hallmark of a good craftsperson.
painstakingadjective	done with great care and a lot of effort	The painstaking repair took several months.

Collocations

C1 collocations for Reading and Use of English

80 word partnerships of the kind CAE multiple-choice cloze questions are built on, and that key word transformations often need.

Verb + noun

At C1 the four options are often all strong verbs. The noun decides: you strike (not hit) a balance, harbour (not keep) doubts and incur (not get) costs.

C1 collocations: verb + noun
Collocation	Meaning or note	Example
pose a threat (to)	be a danger to	Rising sea levels pose a serious threat to coastal towns.
raise concerns	say that you are worried about something	Parents have raised concerns about the new timetable.
draw a distinction	show how two similar things are different	It's important to draw a distinction between facts and opinions.
draw conclusions	decide what the facts mean	It's too early to draw any conclusions.
bear responsibility (for)	be the person who is responsible (formal)	Who bears responsibility for the delay?
strike a balance	find a sensible middle point between two things	The best essays strike a balance between detail and clarity.
reach a consensus	arrive at a general agreement within a group	The committee failed to reach a consensus.
meet demand	supply as much as people want	The bakery can barely meet demand at weekends.
exert influence	use your power to affect something	Lobby groups exert considerable influence on policy.
harbour doubts	continue to have doubts, often privately	Some members still harbour doubts about the plan.
pay tribute to	praise someone publicly	Colleagues paid tribute to her years of service.
hold someone responsible (for)	say that someone should be blamed for something	Residents hold the council responsible for the flooding.
lend support (to)	give your support	Several local businesses have lent their support to the campaign.
incur costs	have to pay costs because of something you do (formal)	The project incurred unexpected costs.
undergo changes	experience changes	The area has undergone major changes.
address an issue	start to deal with a problem	The report fails to address the issue of funding.
allocate funds	officially give money for a particular purpose	The council has allocated funds for new benches.
conduct a survey	carry out a survey	We conducted a survey of two hundred residents.
gain an insight into	come to understand something better	Visitors gain an insight into how the mill once worked.
voice opposition (to)	say publicly that you are against something	Residents voiced strong opposition to the plans.
run the risk of	be in a situation where something bad could happen	If you leave it late, you run the risk of missing the deadline.
come under criticism	be criticised	The design came under criticism from disability groups.
fulfil an ambition	achieve something you have wanted for a long time	She finally fulfilled her ambition of running a marathon.
place emphasis on	treat something as especially important	The school places great emphasis on creativity.
set a precedent	do something that will be used as an example in the future	The decision could set a precedent for other cases.
tackle a problem	make a determined effort to deal with a problem	The city is finally tackling the problem of litter.
sustain an injury	be injured (formal)	He sustained a serious injury in the fall.
grind to a halt	slowly stop completely	Traffic ground to a halt after the accident.
make headway	make progress, especially when it is difficult	We are finally making headway with the project.
bridge the gap (between)	reduce the difference between two things or groups	The scheme aims to bridge the gap between school and work.
wreak havoc (on)	cause great damage or confusion	The storm wreaked havoc on the coast.

Adjective + noun and adverb + adjective

Intensifying adverbs are a C1 favourite in Part 1: bitterly disappointed, highly unlikely, deeply concerned. Learn the exact partner: only one adverb will sound natural with the adjective.

C1 collocations: adjective + noun and adverb + adjective
Collocation	Meaning or note	Example
a staunch supporter	a very loyal supporter	She has been a staunch supporter of the library for years.
a sweeping generalisation	a statement that is too general to be accurate	Saying that all teenagers are lazy is a sweeping generalisation.
a vested interest	a personal reason, often financial, for wanting something to happen	Developers have a vested interest in the decision.
a common misconception	a mistaken belief that many people have	It's a common misconception that bats are blind.
an acute shortage	a very serious lack of something	There is an acute shortage of nurses.
a pressing need	a need that must be dealt with soon	There is a pressing need for affordable childcare.
a marked improvement	a clear, noticeable improvement	There has been a marked improvement in her writing.
tentative plans	plans that are not yet certain	We have made tentative plans to meet in the spring.
a lasting impression	an effect that you remember for a long time	The trip made a lasting impression on all of us.
a compelling argument	an argument that is very convincing	She made a compelling argument for change.
far-reaching consequences	effects that are wide and important	The decision will have far-reaching consequences.
sheer luck	nothing but luck	It was sheer luck that we found the key.
a hectic schedule	a very busy timetable	Despite her hectic schedule, she always replies to emails.
a stark contrast	a very clear difference	The quiet village is in stark contrast to the busy city.
a fleeting glimpse	a very short view of something	We caught a fleeting glimpse of an owl.
highly unlikely	very unlikely	It's highly unlikely that the train will be on time.
deeply concerned	very worried	We are deeply concerned about the plans.
bitterly disappointed	extremely disappointed	She was bitterly disappointed not to get the part.
painfully slow	so slow that it is frustrating	Progress has been painfully slow.
strictly forbidden	completely not allowed	Photography is strictly forbidden in the gallery.
readily available	easy to find or get	Free drinking water is readily available at refill points.
wildly inaccurate	completely wrong	The early estimates were wildly inaccurate.

Dependent prepositions

These are the prepositions that C1 options are built around. Learn the adjective, verb or noun together with the word that follows it.

C1 collocations: dependent prepositions
Collocation	Meaning or note	Example
conducive to	making something likely or easier	A quiet room is conducive to concentration.
indicative of	being a sign of	Falling visitor numbers are indicative of a wider problem.
oblivious to (or of)	not aware of	She was oblivious to the noise around her.
averse to	not liking or wanting something (often not averse to)	I'm not averse to a bit of hard work.
prone to	likely to suffer from or do something	Older bikes are prone to punctures.
preoccupied with	thinking about something so much that you ignore other things	He was too preoccupied with work to notice.
wary of	careful because you do not trust something	Be wary of offers that sound too good to be true.
synonymous with	so closely connected with something that one suggests the other	The town is synonymous with fine pottery.
devoid of	completely without	The speech was devoid of any real content.
reliant on	needing something in order to survive or succeed	The village is heavily reliant on tourism.
inherent in	existing as a natural part of something	Some risk is inherent in any new business.
refrain from	stop yourself from doing something (formal, + -ing)	Please refrain from using your phone during the performance.
capitalise on	use a situation to your advantage	The town capitalised on its fame as a film location.
contend with	have to deal with a difficult situation	Farmers have to contend with unpredictable weather.
attribute something to	say that something is caused by something	She attributes her success to hard work.
comply with	obey a rule or request (formal)	All products must comply with safety regulations.
deter someone from	make someone decide not to do something	High prices deter many people from visiting.
confide in	tell someone your secrets or private feelings	She confided in her sister.
dispense with	stop using something because it is not needed	Let's dispense with the formalities.
culminate in	end with an important event	The festival culminates in a fireworks display.
subscribe to (a view)	agree with an opinion or theory	I don't subscribe to the view that money brings happiness.
a flair for	a natural ability to do something well	He has a flair for languages.
a craving for	a very strong wish for something, especially food	I had a sudden craving for chocolate.
an exception to	something that does not follow a rule	There are few exceptions to this rule.
the onus on	the responsibility of someone to do something (formal)	The onus is on the landlord to make repairs.
a bearing on	an effect on, or a connection with	His age had no bearing on the decision.
a slump in	a sudden fall in prices, sales or value	There's been a slump in sales since the summer.

Phrasal verbs

C1 phrasal verbs for CAE

78 more idiomatic phrasal verbs in 8 groups. ★ marks verbs that are useful in CAE key word transformations, because they can replace a single verb or a longer phrase (confirm → bear out, admit → own up to).

Where does the object go? separable: before or after the particle, but a pronoun must go in the middle (rule it out). inseparable: always after the particle (dwell on it). three-part: after the last particle (face up to it). no object: the verb stands alone (the deal fell through).

Ideas, arguments and discussion

C1 phrasal verbs: ideas, arguments and discussion
Phrasal verb	Meaning	Example
touch oninseparable	mention a subject briefly	The lecture only touched on the history of the building.
gloss overinseparable	deal with a problem too quickly, as if it were not important	The report glosses over the cost of the scheme.
dwell oninseparable	keep thinking or talking about something unpleasant	There's no point dwelling on past mistakes.
play down (useful in key word transformations)separable	make something seem less important or serious than it is	The minister played down the risks of the new policy.
rule out (useful in key word transformations)separable	decide that something is not possible or will not happen	The council has not ruled out closing the library.
stem from (useful in key word transformations)inseparable	be caused by (not used in the passive)	Her interest in plants stems from a childhood on a farm.
boil down to (useful in key word transformations)three-part, inseparable	be the most basic part or cause of something	In the end, the problem boils down to a lack of money.
weigh up (useful in key word transformations)separable	consider the advantages and disadvantages carefully	Weigh up the pros and cons before you decide.
back downno object	stop insisting on something after opposition	The council backed down after weeks of protests.
come across as (useful in key word transformations)three-part, inseparable	seem to be, from the way you behave	He comes across as arrogant, but he's actually shy.
bear out (useful in key word transformations)separable	show that something is true	The latest figures bear out her theory.
put forward (useful in key word transformations)separable	suggest an idea or plan for discussion	She put forward a proposal to extend the opening hours.
iron outseparable	solve the small problems that remain	We still need to iron out a few details.

Work, projects and plans

C1 phrasal verbs: work, projects and plans
Phrasal verb	Meaning	Example
draw up (useful in key word transformations)separable	prepare a written plan, list or contract	The lawyers drew up a new contract.
follow upseparable	take further action on something (follow up on is also used)	I'll follow up our conversation with an email.
lay off (useful in key word transformations)separable	stop employing workers because there is not enough work	The factory laid off forty workers last spring.
step down (useful in key word transformations)no object	leave an important job or position	The director stepped down after ten years.
phase out (useful in key word transformations)separable	gradually stop using or providing something	Single-use plastics are being phased out.
roll outseparable	introduce a new product or service widely	The bank is rolling out its new app next month.
fall through (useful in key word transformations)no object	fail to happen	Our plans for the summer fell through when the hostel closed.
pull off (useful in key word transformations)separable	succeed in doing something difficult	Nobody thought she could pull it off.
see throughseparable: object in the middle	continue with a task until it is finished	We're determined to see the project through.
wind downseparable, or no object	gradually reduce activity before stopping; relax	The company is winding down its operations in Spain.
pitch inno object	join in and help with a task	Everyone pitched in to clean the hall after the festival.

People and relationships

C1 phrasal verbs: people and relationships
Phrasal verb	Meaning	Example
look out forthree-part, inseparable	take care of someone; watch carefully for something	Neighbours here look out for each other.
stick up for (useful in key word transformations)three-part, inseparable	defend or support someone who is being criticised	Thanks for sticking up for me in the meeting.
talk down tothree-part, inseparable	speak to someone as if they were less intelligent than you	Don't talk down to the students: they know more than you think.
fob offseparable	persuade someone to accept an excuse or something of lower quality (informal)	Don't let them fob you off with excuses.
lash outno object	suddenly attack someone, in words or physically (lash out at someone)	He lashed out at his critics in a long post.
open upno object	start to talk about your feelings	It took months for him to open up about the accident.
drift apartno object	gradually become less close	We drifted apart after university.
win over (useful in key word transformations)separable	persuade someone to support you	Her honesty won over a sceptical audience.
own up (to) (useful in key word transformations)no object	admit that you did something wrong	He finally owned up to losing the keys.
single outseparable	choose one person or thing from a group for special attention	The manager singled out two volunteers for praise.

Feelings and wellbeing

C1 phrasal verbs: feelings and wellbeing
Phrasal verb	Meaning	Example
bottle upseparable	not show or talk about your feelings	It's unhealthy to bottle up your anger.
perk upseparable, or no object	become, or make someone, more cheerful or lively	She perked up when she heard the news.
snap out ofthree-part, inseparable	suddenly stop feeling sad or behaving badly (snap out of it)	Come on, snap out of it: it's only one bad result.
brush offseparable	refuse to take someone or something seriously	He brushed off my concerns about the budget.
wear offno object	(of a feeling or effect) gradually disappear	The painkillers are starting to wear off.
bounce back (useful in key word transformations)no object	recover quickly after a difficulty	The town bounced back quickly after the floods.
pull throughno object	recover from a serious illness or a difficult situation	The doctors expect her to pull through.
shake offseparable	get rid of an illness, a feeling or a problem	I can't seem to shake off this cold.
block outseparable	stop yourself from seeing, hearing or thinking about something	I wear headphones to block out the noise.

Change, increase and decrease

C1 phrasal verbs: change, increase and decrease
Phrasal verb	Meaning	Example
peter outno object	gradually become smaller or weaker and then end	The path petered out near the river.
taper offno object	gradually become less	Demand for ice cream tapers off in October.
scale back (useful in key word transformations)separable	reduce the size or amount of something	The festival has scaled back its plans for next year.
wipe out (useful in key word transformations)separable	destroy completely	Disease wiped out most of the elm trees.
shoot up (useful in key word transformations)no object	increase very quickly	Rents have shot up since the station reopened.
level offno object	stop rising or falling and stay the same	House prices have finally levelled off.
crop upno object	appear or happen unexpectedly	Problems kept cropping up during the move.
give way tothree-part, inseparable	be replaced by	Fields have given way to housing estates.
ease offno object	become less strong or severe	The pressure at work should ease off after the deadline.

Money and resources

C1 phrasal verbs: money and resources
Phrasal verb	Meaning	Example
fork out (for)separable, or no object	pay a lot of money, unwillingly (informal)	We had to fork out £200 for a new tyre.
rake inseparable	earn a lot of money easily (informal)	The film raked in millions in its first week.
scrape byno object	manage to live on very little money	As students, we just about scraped by.
tide overseparable: object in the middle	help someone through a short difficult period, usually with money	Could you lend me £50 to tide me over until payday?
dip intoinseparable	use part of a supply of money	We had to dip into our savings to fix the roof.
rip offseparable	charge someone too much (informal)	Tourists often get ripped off by taxi drivers here.
set aside (useful in key word transformations)separable	keep money or time for a particular purpose	Set aside an hour a day for revision.
cash in onthree-part, inseparable	take advantage of a situation to make money	Shops are cashing in on the craze for vintage clothes.

Information and understanding

C1 phrasal verbs: information and understanding
Phrasal verb	Meaning	Example
piece togetherseparable	understand a situation by putting separate pieces of information together	Historians pieced together the story from old letters.
mull overseparable	think carefully about something for a period of time	I need a few days to mull it over.
pore overinseparable	study something very carefully (not pour)	She pored over the old maps for hours.
seek outseparable	look for someone or something with determination	We sought out the best bakeries in the city.
sift throughinseparable	examine a large amount of material carefully	Volunteers sifted through thousands of photographs.
catch onno object	become popular; begin to understand	The idea never really caught on.
home in onthree-part, inseparable	focus your attention on something	The report homes in on three key problems.
cotton on (to)no object	begin to understand something (informal)	It took me ages to cotton on to what she meant.
spell outseparable	explain something clearly and in detail	The contract spells out who is responsible for repairs.

Dealing with things, or avoiding them

C1 phrasal verbs: dealing with things, or avoiding them
Phrasal verb	Meaning	Example
shy away fromthree-part, inseparable	avoid something because you are nervous or afraid	Don't shy away from difficult questions.
opt out (of)no object	choose not to take part in something	Members can opt out of the newsletter at any time.
face up to (useful in key word transformations)three-part, inseparable	accept and deal with a difficult fact or situation	We must face up to the scale of the problem.
clamp down on (useful in key word transformations)three-part, inseparable	take strong action to stop something	The council is clamping down on illegal parking.
abide by (useful in key word transformations)inseparable	accept and obey a rule or decision	All members must abide by the club rules.
make do with (useful in key word transformations)three-part, inseparable	manage with something that is not ideal	We had to make do with a camping stove for a week.
stave offseparable	stop something bad from happening for a time	A snack will stave off hunger until dinner.
get away with (useful in key word transformations)three-part, inseparable	avoid being punished or criticised for something	He thinks he can get away with anything.
muddle throughno object	manage to do something without the right skills or plan	We had no instructions, so we just muddled through.

Word formation

C1 word families for Part 3 word formation

50 base words with their noun, verb, adjective, adverb and negative forms, for CAE word formation. ⚠ marks a family with an irregular or easily confused form, explained in the last column. A dash means there is no common form.

C1 word families: noun, verb, adjective, adverb and negative forms
Base word	Noun	Verb	Adjective	Adverb	Negative forms	Watch out
apply	application, applicant	apply	applicable, inapplicable, applied	—	inapplicable	An applicant is the person who applies.
assume	assumption	assume	assumed	—	—	A p is added: assume → assumption.
clear	clarity, clarification	clarify, clear	clear, unclear	clearly	unclear	The vowel changes in the noun: clarity.
compare	comparison	compare	comparable, comparative, incomparable	comparatively, comparably	incomparable	Comparison, not 'comparation'. Incomparable means so good that nothing compares.
compel	compulsion	compel	compelling, compulsive, compulsory	compulsively	—	Compelling = convincing; compulsive = unable to stop; compulsory = required by a rule.
consistent	consistency, inconsistency	—	consistent, inconsistent	consistently, inconsistently	inconsistent	The verb consist (of) means 'be made of': a different meaning.
continue	continuation, continuity	continue, discontinue	continuous, continual, discontinued	continuously, continually	discontinue	Continual = happening again and again; continuous = without a break.
convince	conviction	convince	convinced, convincing, unconvincing	convincingly	unconvincing	Conviction can also mean a court's guilty verdict.
credible	credibility	discredit	credible, incredible, discredited	incredibly	incredible	Incredible now usually means 'amazing' rather than 'not believable'.
deceive	deception, deceit	deceive	deceptive, deceitful	deceptively	—	Deceptively means 'not as it looks': deceptively spacious (bigger than it looks); deceptively simple (looks simple but isn't).
define	definition	define	definite, indefinite, definitive	definitely, indefinitely, definitively	indefinite	Definite = certain; definitive = final and most authoritative.
deny	denial	deny	undeniable	undeniably	undeniable	y becomes i: deny → denial.
destroy	destruction	destroy	destructive, indestructible	destructively	indestructible	The noun changes: destroy → destruction.
doubt	doubt	doubt	doubtful, undoubted	undoubtedly, doubtfully	undoubted, undoubtedly	Silent b. Undoubtedly means certainly.
effective	effect, effectiveness	effect	effective, ineffective	effectively	ineffective	Effect is usually a noun and affect the verb; as a verb, effect means 'bring about' (effect change).
efficient	efficiency, inefficiency	—	efficient, inefficient	efficiently, inefficiently	inefficient
emphasis	emphasis (plural emphases)	emphasise	emphatic	emphatically	—	British spelling: emphasise.
evident	evidence	—	evident	evidently	—
expect	expectation	expect	expected, unexpected, expectant	unexpectedly, expectantly	unexpected
found	foundation, founder	found	unfounded	—	unfounded	Found means establish (founded, founding). Unfounded means not based on facts.
hesitate	hesitation, hesitancy	hesitate	hesitant, unhesitating	hesitantly, unhesitatingly	unhesitating
ignore	ignorance	ignore	ignorant	—	—	Ignorance is a lack of knowledge, not the act of ignoring someone.
industry	industry, industrialist	industrialise	industrial, industrious	industrially, industriously	—	Industrious means hard-working.
inform	information, informant	inform	informative, informed, uninformed	—	uninformed	Informal is not part of this family.
intend	intention	intend	intentional, unintentional, intended	intentionally, unintentionally	unintentional
justify	justification	justify	justifiable, unjustifiable, justified, unjustified	justifiably	unjustifiable, unjustified	y becomes i: justification, justifiable.
maintain	maintenance	maintain	—	—	—	Spelling: maintenance, not 'maintainance'.
mature	maturity, immaturity	mature	mature, immature	maturely	immature	Im- before m.
mobile	mobility	mobilise, immobilise	mobile, immobile	—	immobile
moral	morality, morals	—	moral, immoral, amoral	morally	immoral, amoral	Immoral = wrong; amoral = without moral principles. Morale (with an e) means team spirit.
occur	occurrence	occur	—	—	—	Double r before -ence and -ed: occurrence, occurred.
persuade	persuasion	persuade	persuasive	persuasively	—	Dissuade is the opposite verb: persuade someone not to do something.
practical	practicality	—	practical, impractical, practicable	practically	impractical	Practically often means 'almost'; practicable means able to be done.
predict	prediction	predict	predictable, unpredictable	predictably, unpredictably	unpredictable
profession	profession, professional, professionalism	—	professional, unprofessional	professionally	unprofessional	Double s, single f.
pronounce	pronunciation	pronounce	pronounced, unpronounceable	—	unpronounceable	The noun drops the o: pronunciation. Pronounced (adjective) means very noticeable.
provoke	provocation	provoke	provocative, unprovoked	provocatively	unprovoked	k becomes c: provocation, provocative.
reason	reason, reasoning	reason	reasonable, unreasonable	reasonably, unreasonably	unreasonable
recognise	recognition	recognise	recognisable, unrecognisable	recognisably	unrecognisable	British spelling: -ise, -isable.
resist	resistance	resist	resistant, irresistible	irresistibly	irresistible	The negative adjective ends in -ible: irresistible.
respect	respect, disrespect	respect	respectable, respectful, disrespectful, respective	respectfully, respectively	disrespectful	Respectful = polite; respectable = socially acceptable; respectively = in the order mentioned.
sense	sense, sensitivity, sensibility	sense	sensible, sensitive, insensitive, senseless	sensibly, sensitively	insensitive	Sensible = practical; sensitive = easily hurt, or aware of feelings.
signify	significance, insignificance	signify	significant, insignificant	significantly	insignificant
similar	similarity	—	similar, dissimilar	similarly	dissimilar	Dis- here, not un-.
suspect	suspicion, suspect	suspect	suspicious, unsuspecting	suspiciously	unsuspecting	The noun ends in -cion: suspicion.
tolerate	tolerance, intolerance	tolerate	tolerant, intolerant, tolerable, intolerable	tolerably	intolerant, intolerable	Tolerant = accepting of others; tolerable = bearable.
value	value	value, devalue	valuable, invaluable, valued	—	—	Invaluable means extremely useful, not 'worthless'.
vary	variety, variation, variable	vary	various, varied, variable, invariable	invariably	invariable	Invariably means always.
visible	visibility	—	visible, invisible	visibly	invisible
wise	wisdom	—	wise, unwise	wisely, unwisely	unwise	Noun wisdom: the vowel sound changes.

Idioms

C1 idioms and fixed expressions

40 idioms and fixed expressions of the kind C1 texts use; Part 1 can test one by leaving a gap for one of its words. Those marked informal belong in speech, emails to friends and lively reviews, not in essays or reports.

Situations and problems

C1 idioms: situations and problems
Expression	Meaning	Example
a blessing in disguise	something that seems bad at first but turns out to be good	Missing the train was a blessing in disguise: I met my future business partner on the next one.
the tip of the iceberg	a small, visible part of a much bigger problem	The leaking roof was just the tip of the iceberg: the whole building needed work.
a drop in the ocean	an amount that is far too small to make a difference	The donation is welcome, but it is a drop in the ocean compared with what we need.
the last straw	the final problem that makes a situation impossible to accept	When the heating broke as well, that was the last straw.
back to square one	back at the beginning after a plan has failed	The funding fell through, so we are back to square one.
the elephant in the room	an obvious problem that nobody wants to talk about	Cost was the elephant in the room at every meeting.
a bone of contention	a subject that people keep disagreeing about	Parking is a constant bone of contention among the neighbours.
a double-edged sword	something that has both good and bad effects	Fame can be a double-edged sword.
a wake-up call	an event that makes people realise there is a serious problem	The floods were a wake-up call for the whole town.
a far cry from	very different from	The tiny room was a far cry from the luxury flat shown in the advert.

Effort, work and money

C1 idioms: effort, work and money
Expression	Meaning	Example
learn the ropes	learn how to do a new job or activity	It took me a month to learn the ropes at the new office.
cut corners	do something badly or cheaply to save time or money	The builders cut corners, and the walls cracked within a year.
go the extra mile	make more effort than people expect	The hotel staff always go the extra mile for their guests.
pull your weight	do your fair share of the work	Everyone in the team needs to pull their weight.
bite off more than you can chew	try to do more than you are able to (informal)	With three part-time jobs, he has bitten off more than he can chew.
by the skin of your teeth	only just; with almost no margin	We caught the last train by the skin of our teeth.
make ends meet	have just enough money to pay for the things you need	Many families are struggling to make ends meet.
get the ball rolling	start an activity or a discussion	Let me get the ball rolling with a quick question.
call it a day	stop working on something for now (informal)	It's getting late: let's call it a day.
in the pipeline	being planned or developed	Several new projects are in the pipeline.

People, opinions and understanding

C1 idioms: people, opinions and understanding
Expression	Meaning	Example
on the same wavelength	thinking in a similar way to someone	We were on the same wavelength about the design from the start.
hit it off	like each other as soon as you meet (informal)	Jo and her new flatmate hit it off straight away.
take something with a pinch of salt	not completely believe something	Take online reviews with a pinch of salt.
sit on the fence	avoid saying which side you support	The minister sat on the fence when asked about the new airport.
put your finger on something	identify exactly what is wrong or different	She put her finger on the real problem: nobody was in charge of the project.
read between the lines	understand a meaning that is not stated directly	Reading between the lines, he is not happy in his job.
keep a low profile	avoid attracting attention	After the scandal, the director kept a low profile.
turn a blind eye (to)	pretend not to notice something wrong	The teacher turned a blind eye to the late homework.
get your head round	manage to understand something difficult (informal)	I can't get my head round these new rules.
off the top of your head	without checking or thinking carefully (informal)	Off the top of my head, I would say about fifty people came.

Time, decisions and what matters

C1 idioms: time, decisions and what matters
Expression	Meaning	Example
at a loose end	with nothing to do (informal)	If you're at a loose end on Sunday, come round for lunch.
on the spur of the moment	suddenly, without planning	We booked the trip on the spur of the moment.
be in two minds (about)	be unable to decide	She's in two minds about accepting the offer.
on the go	very busy and active (informal)	I've been on the go since six this morning.
once in a blue moon	very rarely	We only eat out once in a blue moon.
the bottom line	the most important fact in a situation	The bottom line is that we can't afford it.
a rule of thumb	a practical guide that is roughly right, not exact	As a rule of thumb, each paragraph should make one main point.
come to terms with	gradually accept something sad or difficult	She's still coming to terms with her father's death.
stand someone in good stead	be useful to someone in the future	Learning to cook will stand you in good stead when you leave home.
the be-all and end-all	the most important thing (often used in the negative)	Exam results aren't the be-all and end-all.

Formal and informal register for C1 Writing

The C1 essay must be formal or neutral, and reports and proposals for a manager or committee usually are too. Communicative Achievement, one of the four Writing criteria, looks at how well your register fits the task and the reader. In an email to a friend the left-hand column is fine; for a tutor, a manager or a committee, use the right.

Informal words and their formal equivalents for C1 Writing
Informal or neutral	Formal	In formal writing
get (a reply)	receive	Applicants will receive a reply within ten days.
need	require	Volunteers are required to attend a short training session.
ask for	request	Several residents have requested more seating.
find out	establish, discover	The survey aimed to establish how often the park is used.
help	assist	Staff will assist visitors with limited mobility.
start	commence (very formal)	Work will commence in early spring.
enough	sufficient	There is not sufficient space for a café.
a lot of	a considerable number of, a substantial amount of	A considerable number of visitors arrive by bike.
about (+ a number)	approximately	Approximately two hundred people responded.
show	demonstrate	The figures demonstrate a clear need for change.
think about	consider	The committee should consider extending the opening hours.
go up	increase, rise	Membership has increased by a third.
so	therefore, consequently	Funding was cut; consequently, the event was cancelled.
but	however	The plan is ambitious. However, it is affordable.
also	furthermore, in addition	Furthermore, the café would create local jobs.
try	attempt, endeavour	We will endeavour to reply within a week.
tell	inform	Please inform the organisers of any dietary requirements.
say sorry	apologise	We apologise for any inconvenience caused.
put off	postpone	The meeting has been postponed until further notice.
get better	improve	Facilities have improved considerably.
kids	children, young people	The scheme mainly benefits young people in the area.
look into	investigate	The council has agreed to investigate the complaints.
like (meaning 'for example')	such as	Facilities such as lockers would be welcome.
hand out	distribute	Leaflets were distributed to every household.

See the register in action in the CAE proposal guide and the CAE report guide.

Self-test

C1 vocabulary self-test

18 questions in the style of Reading and Use of English, using words from this page. Write your answers down, then open each one to check.

A. Choose the right word

Like Reading and Use of English Part 1: only one option fits the gap.

The council has come gap criticism for closing the library.
A underB intoC acrossD over
Show the answer
A under: Come under criticism (or attack, or pressure) is the fixed pattern.
We need to gap a balance between cost and quality.
A hitB strikeC doD take
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B strike: You strike a balance. None of the other verbs goes with balance in this meaning.
This part of the coast is gap to flooding in winter.
A proneB likelyC inclinedD tending
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A prone: Prone to + noun means likely to suffer from. Likely and inclined are normally followed by to + verb, so they do not fit before a noun like flooding.
Fans were gap disappointed when the concert was cancelled.
A bitterlyB heavilyC stronglyD sharply
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A bitterly: Bitterly disappointed is the standard intensifier. Heavily, strongly and sharply don't combine with disappointed.

B. Word formation

Like Part 3: change the word in capitals so that it fits the sentence.

Her gap is excellent, although she makes the odd grammatical slip. PRONOUNCE
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pronunciation: A noun is needed after 'her'. Pronounce → pronunciation: the o disappears.
The smell of fresh bread was gap, so we bought two loaves. RESIST
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irresistible: 'So we bought two loaves' means we could not resist it. The negative adjective is irresistible (-ible).
He gap arrives late, so we have stopped waiting for him. VARY
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invariably: An adverb meaning always fits before 'arrives'. Vary → invariable → invariably.
Rumours that the factory will close are completely gap. FOUND
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unfounded: Unfounded means not based on facts. The base is found (establish), not find.
Wearing a helmet is gap for everyone taking part in the race. COMPEL
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compulsory: Compulsory means required by a rule. Compelling (convincing) and compulsive (unable to stop) don't fit.
Anna and Tom finished first and second gap. RESPECT
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respectively: Respectively means in the order just mentioned: Anna first, Tom second.

C. Phrasal verbs

Write one word in each gap.

The deal fell gap at the last minute.
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through: Fall through means fail to happen.
Many of these problems stem gap poor planning.
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from: Stem from means be caused by.
Nobody owned gap to breaking the window.
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up: Own up (to) means admit that you did something wrong.
Visitor numbers usually taper gap after the summer.
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off: Taper off means gradually become less.

D. Idioms

Write the missing word of each expression.

The complaints we've received are just the tip of the gap.
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iceberg: The tip of the iceberg is a small sign of a much bigger problem.
Something is wrong with the design, but I can't put my gap on it.
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finger: Put your finger on something means identify it exactly.
In your essay, don't sit on the gap: make your opinion clear.
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fence: Sit on the fence means avoid choosing a side, which a C1 essay should not do.
Losing that contract was a blessing in gap: it pushed us to find better clients.
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disguise: A blessing in disguise seems bad at first but turns out to be good.

Study tips

How to build C1 vocabulary you can use

Upgrade the words you already use

C1 is less about new words than precise ones. When you catch yourself writing a big problem or very important, stop and look for the stronger partner: a pressing problem, of considerable importance.

Collect partners around one noun

Give each key noun its own page and list everything that goes with it: raise, voice or dismiss concerns; growing, serious or widespread concern. When a Part 1 gap sits next to that noun, the right word will look familiar.

Review on a schedule

Come back to new items after a day, a few days, a week and a month. Drop the ones you can use without thinking and keep the ones you still hesitate over.

Tag every item with its register

Mark each new word formal, neutral or informal. Hard up and fork out are fine in an email to a friend and out of place in a report or a proposal.

Mine the long reading texts

Reading Parts 5–8 are full of C1 vocabulary in context. After each practice test, copy five phrases into your notebook together with the sentence they came from.

Use it in timed writing, but only where it fits

Choose three items before a practice essay and use them naturally. If a word does not fit what you want to say, leave it out: forced vocabulary reads badly.

Test the words under exam conditions with our CAE practice tests, and fit vocabulary into a weekly routine with the 8-week FCE and CAE study plan.

FAQ

C1 vocabulary questions

How many words do you need for C1 Advanced?

There is no official figure. The CEFR describes C1 vocabulary by what you can do, such as using a broad range of words and finding another way to say something when a word is missing, not by a number, and Cambridge does not publish a word count for C1 Advanced. Research estimates of vocabulary size by level vary with the learners and the test used. What separates C1 from B2 is less the number of words than precision, collocation and register.

Is there an official C1 Advanced word list?

No. Cambridge publishes vocabulary lists only for exams below B2, such as A2 Key and B1 Preliminary, and states that exams at B2 and above do not have them. Its English Vocabulary Profile research describes which words and meanings learners know at each level, including C1. The list on this page is our own selection for C1 Advanced.

Should I use idioms in C1 Writing?

Sparingly, and only where the register allows. Many idioms are informal, so they suit an email to a friend or a lively review better than an essay, a report or a proposal. Communicative Achievement, one of the four Writing criteria, looks at whether your register fits the task, so in formal writing a precise collocation is usually the safer choice.

What is the difference between B2 and C1 vocabulary?

At B2 you need the common words for everyday topics and the most frequent phrasal verbs and collocations. At C1 you need more precise and less frequent items, more abstract nouns, idiomatic phrasal verbs and control of formal and informal register. This page avoids repeating the B2 list, so start with the B2 vocabulary list if the basics are not yet secure.

Are collocations tested in C1 Advanced?

Yes. The C1 Advanced handbook lists collocations, idioms, fixed phrases and phrasal verbs among the things Reading and Use of English Part 1 tests, and names collocation as one focus of Part 4, key word transformations. Speaking also has a separate Lexical Resource mark for your vocabulary.

Sources

The test focus for each part is from the C1 Advanced Handbook for Teachers. The selection of words, the meanings and the example sentences are our own. CambridgeMock is independent and not affiliated with Cambridge University Press & Assessment.

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